Controversy has since centred around which of the two scientists Popham’s mother hired – William Holder and John Wallace – was the actual man who succeeded in teaching the boy to speak.

Born in Littlecote House in Berkshire, Popham could not hear or speak until his desperate mother hired eminent scientists Holder and Wallace. Ann Popham was determined that she would be able to communicate with her son. Popham was the only male heir in the family, so it was crucial that he received as much help as possible in living a comparatively normal life.

A record of who actually achieved the astonishing results was never kept and has been subject of argument ever since.

Alexander Popham was the grandson of infamous John Popham, the Chief Lord Justice of England between 1592 and 1607. Judge Popham is notorious for being the man who sentenced Mary Queen of Scots and Guy Fawkes to death during his tenure.

However, it’s his grandson that’s been the source of speculation for so long. The discovery, which was found in the butler’s cupboard by accident, details that it was undoubtedly John Wallis who taught Popham how to speak.

Wallis used modern techniques to aid education, beginning by teaching Popham how to make sounds before moving further towards language constructions. Wallis drew diagrams which he used to show Alexander how to position his tongue and lips in order to form sounds. He then employed the same method to grow the sounds into full words.

Alexander went on to live a relatively normal life – even marrying a woman named Brilliana and fathering four healthy children with her. He became a politician who is best known not for his cured disabilities but for his patronage of the renowned Enlightenment philosopher, John Locke.

The discovery has been an excitement to the scientific community, many of whom now feel they can put this age-old debate to rest. Alexander’s descendents were invited to Littlecote House to visit the notebook for themselves and see the evidence firsthand that displays who really taught their famous relative how to speak.

Littlecote House has existed in several restored and renovated forms since the 13th century. It is now a country house hotel and resort, one of many popular hotels in Berkshire.

Adam Singleton writes for a digital marketing agency. This article has been commissioned by a client of said agency. This article is not designed to promote, but should be considered professional content.

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However, some scientists did manage to replicate the findings, and quietly an enormous amount of positive research findings based on experiments of a lot better quality have been published. The phenomenon is again becoming accepted as a legitimate field of research by steadily more scientists.

However, what is really going on is not well understood. Heat production, detected radiation and detected fusion products suggest that some kind of nuclear reaction or fusion takes place, but the reactions do not show the amount of radiation and the ratios of products that known hot fusion reactions do. Therefore other names of the phenomenon are often used, like Low Energy Nuclear Reactions or (LENR) or Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions (CANR).

WHAT IS FUSION

By fusion two or more atomic nuclei, protons or neutrons fuse together to form a new atomic nucleus. The new nucleus is held together by the strong forces between the heavy particles, protons and neutrons. These forces are so strong that they win over the repulsing electromagnetic forces between protons.

However, the strong forces only work at a short distance. Therefore the nucleons (neutrons and protons) must be brought very close together. This is difficult because of the repulsing electromagnetic forces between the protons. In traditional fusion this is achieved by very high pressure and temperature in the fusing material.

The mass of a helium nucleus (consisting of two protons and two neutrons) and other light nuclei are less than the mass of the same number of free protons, neutrons or deuterium nuclei. A deuterium nucleus consists of one proton and one neutron. Heavy water contains deuterium instead of ordinary hydrogen and is therefore designed D2O. When fusion takes place, this mass difference cannot be lost. It is converted to kinetic energy and gamma radiation. Therefore fusion of protons, neutrons or kernels of the very lightest elements into heavier elements is a very potent energy source.

One has not been able to make a controlled fusion by high temperature and pressure that yields more energy than the input energy yet. The only practical way one has managed to exploit the energy from warm fusion is the hydrogen bomb.

THE PROCESS BEHIND COLD FUSION

There is no fully developed model for cold fusion yet. The hypothesis behind the phenomenon is however very simple: All particles behave according to quantum mechanical laws. These laws say that the coordinates and energy state of a particle at one point in time determine the probability of finding a particle at a place with some given coordinates at another point of time, but the exact place cannot be predicted. Actually, a particle can be found anywhere at that other time point, but all places do not have the same probability. Some places are very probable, and others are very improbable. Because of this, even a particle that is not in any net motion nevertheless will shift place randomly to some extend, usually very little, but sometimes more.

By bringing particles and nuclei very near each other by using some force, this will happen: The quantum mechanical behaviour will as always make the particles shift their position more or less all the time, and sometimes they get near enough to let the strong nuclear forces to take action and make them fuse.

According to standard understanding of the standard theory, this cannot happen in such a degree to be detected. Still it does. Either the standard theory is not complete, or one has not learned to use the theory in a right fashion. The mathematical apparatus of the theory is so complicated, that it is impossible to predict what can happen and what cannot happen with a short glance at the equations.

Cold fusion differs in many aspects from warm fusion. It is difficult to produce warm fusion of other things than one deuterium and one tritium kernel. By cold fusion, two deuterium kernels easily fuse to helium, and even fusion involving hydrogen kernels (free protons) have been reported.

Output of neutrons (n), tritium (T), protons (p) and gamma radiation has been reported by cold fusion, but not in the amount predicted by standard understanding. These are the reactions that standard understanding predicts when two deuterium kernels fuse: D + D –> 3He + n, D + D –> T + p, D + D –> 4He + gamma photon.

THE ORIGINAL PONS-FLEISCHMAN SYSTEM

The original experiment exerted by Pons and Fleischmann consisted of these elements: A palladium cathode, a nickel anode and a solution of sodium deuteride NaOD (20%) in heavy water D2O. Sodium deuteride is sodium hydroxide with heavy hydrogen (deuterium) in the OH- ion, and therefore designed as OD-.

When electricity was applied to this electrolytic system, deuterium atoms were produced at the cathode, and oxygen at the anode. The deuterium atoms went into the palladium crystal lattice in great extend before combining to D2.

Excess heat was then produced in the electrolytic cell, apart from the electrolytic heat. Helium, tritium and neutrons were also produced, but the latter two products not in the amounts that would have been produced in a hot fusion. Therefore the fusion reactions in the system are different form those in hot fusion, and probably more complicated.

Only few scientists managed to reproduce the results in the first place, because of bad documentation from the originators. However, some of them succeeded, and gradually the conditions for a satisfactory fusion have been established. The best fusion occurs when the palladium is somewhat over-saturated, that is when there are nearly as many atoms of deuterium as those of palladium in the crystal.

The saturation is controlled by the voltage applied, and by using palladium structures composed of very thin layers or very small grains. The electrolysis in itself is only a means to put deuterium into the palladium crystal matrix.

THERE ARE MANY WAYS OF OBTAINING COLD FUSION

As seen, cold fusion processes can be initiated by packing many deuterium kernels into inter-atomic rooms in a crystal lattice. A critical density for starting a fusion process seems to be the same density as in liquid pure deuterium. Since there is no fusion process in liquid deuterium, the crystal lattice probably packs the deuterium kernels together in tight sub-microscopic groups with much greater density than the average density in the lattice as a whole, and thus allowing quantum mechanical tunnelling between the kernels in the groups.

There are other electrolytic solutions than that used by Fleischman and Pons that can be used in combination with palladium electrodes to obtain cold fusion. By electrolysing a solution of KCL/LiCL/Lid using a palladium anode, signs pointing at cold fusion have been reported, but many attempts of reproducing the results have failed.

Any force that is able to push enough D+ ions into the right types of metal crystal lattice, can be used to deliver cold fusion. For example can signs of fusion be produced by bombarding the right kind of metallic lattice with accelerated D+ – ions.

By an electrical discharge between palladium electrodes in a deuterium gas, signs of fusion have been seen. By such a discharge, plasma consisting of D+ ions and electrons will be formed between the electrodes. The D+ ions will be attracted to the surface of the negative electrode, and a high density of D+ will occur at this surface. Since also these D+ -ions will have a high thermic energy; many of them will be thrown very near each other. Quantum-mechanical tunnelling can then do the rest of the approaching process, so that fusion can take place.

Also high pressure can be used to push enough deuterium into a metal lattice to give fusion. For example, by having finely divided palladium grains in a pressurized deuterium gas, signs of fusion have been produced, and replicated by other scientists.

Also by reactions where nickel metal and H2 combine, signs of fusion have been detected. Even though H2 and not D2 has been used, the reaction has still been reported to take place. This points to a very different reaction mechanism than that of warm fusion. Some scientists speculate that hydrogen atoms can exist in quantum states where the electron and proton are so near each other that the atom reacts like a neutron.

MICROSCOPIC WARM FUSION IN OSCILLATING SONOLUMINATING GAS BUBBLES

By bombarding gas bubbles in a liquid by ultrasonic waves, the bubbles can be brought into an extreme oscillation of expansions and collapses synchronized with the sound frequency.

Such oscillating bobbles can send out light by certain frequencies of expansions and collapses, and by the right compositions of the gas. By each collapse, the spot temperature in the bobble can reach as much as 10 mill degrees, even though the average temperature in the total blending is near room temperature.

When deuterium is present in the oscillating bobbles, fusion has been observed. This fusion is strictly not cold fusion, but resembles hot fusion, and the process sends out neutrons, gamma-rays and tritium atoms as predicted by standard understanding.

The process has not been reported to produce more energy that that put in, but is confirmed by independent investigators.

COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL

Cold fusion in crystal lattices has been shown to produce more energy than that put in. Experimental reactors of 1 MW or more have been set up and demonstrated.

Commercial reactors are by now being developed, but no one has yet been able to show a reactor with stabile enough operation to be sold on the market. Commercial household heaters seem to be the first type of reactors these companies try to develop. The hope of the companies is that these will make a way for greater reactors and uses in the market.

By now it is not easy to see how successful cold fusion will be in the energy market. Cold fusion may make a revolution that gives the world cheap clean energy in enormous quantities, but no one knows yet.

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Knut Holt is an internet marketer and consultant focusing at technical and scientific items. To find: Remote controle helicopters, airplanes, cars and boats. Airsoft guns of all models. Chemistry sets. Electronic sets, transmitters and electronic components. Professional microscopes and binoculars. Night vision instruments:

http://www.mydeltapi.com

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Communicative act (CA) is the basic unit of communication, its integral functional fragment of communicative interaction. In order to get a better understanding of CA and to carry out certain applied tasks, the method of modeling is used. A model of communicative act (CA-model) represents its constituent elements and functional characteristics in the schematic form. It is important to understand that every CA-model is developed to solve certain theoretical and practical problems and can be effectively used only in a limited area of application. Such classical CA-models as the teleologic model of R. Jacobson, the transmission model of C. Shannon and W. Weaver, the inferential model of P. Grice, as well as many others don’t cover or don’t put in the center of attention those aspects of CA that are necessary to reveal the essence and specificity of sublanguage. Sublanguage serves this or that sphere of professional communication (SPC). And the model should include psychological, social and pragmatic parameters of CA that would be sufficient enough to determine characteristic features of CAs, common for all SPC. Defining the nature of sublanguage, we shall lean on the model of verbal communicative act by B. Gorodetsky, which, we believe, suits our task best of all. It consists of five basic components: 1. communicants; 2. circumstances of communication; 3. system of communicative intentions; 4. communicative processes; 5. communicative text.

Speaking about communicative aspects of sublanguage, we turn to the notion of professional communicative act (PCA), which is the basic unit of professional communication. So let’s have a look at each component of CA in its ‘professional perspective’.

1. Communicants.

There are three main cases here. 1. Communicants are specialists in the same area of knowledge. This is the specialist/specialist model that represents professional communication in pure form. As a variant, communicants are specialists of different but still related areas of knowledge. This type of communication can be called interprofessional. 2. The second case is the specialist/non-specialist model. In this case communicants are professionally unequal, but still manage to understand each other. We define the non-specialist as a person who has general knowledge in this or that field but who is not professionally involved in it. 3. The case of intraprofessional communication, when professional roles and statuses of communicants are different (for ex., teacher/student, doctor/patient, etc.). In all three cases communicants are professionally oriented.

2. Circumstances of communication.

Every sphere of professional activity (science, technology, education, diplomacy, etc.) is characterized by its own specific circumstances of communication. In other words, there is a limited set of joint practical acts that are typical of this or that SPC. Joint practical acts are performed in certain time (chronological period) and in certain places, the set of which is also limited. There are more of less stable relation between the type of a joint practical act, its place and time, and any deviation makes the situation of communication atypical or even impossible. Circumstances of communication assign functional and communicative roles to participants. They also determine whether speech will be dialogic/monologic, oral/written, direct/indirect forms of communication, official/non-official character of speech, etc.

3. System of communicative intentions.

A considerable variety of practical purposes and, consequently, variety of forms of communication is the result of complexity and versatility of professional activity. Generally speaking, there are three types of professional communication: educational, cognitive and practical. That is to say, people communicate when getting job training, when solving professional problems, and, finally, when working by profession. All diverse communicative intentions that occur in the course of this or that professional activity fall under these basic types. All types are connected with acquisition and application of professional experience. Acquisition and application are always purposeful and intensity of these processes depends on person’s professional interest.

4. Communicative processes.

Speaking about communicative processes (verbalization, understanding, interaction) in the context of PCA, we shall turn to the notion of professional knowledge. Professional knowledge is systematic, comprehensive, and is prepared for immediate recall and use. Consequently, communicative processes that run on the basis of professional knowledge are dynamic and integrative. Verbal-logical thinking prevails in professional activity. Consequently, particular ‘professional’ consciousness, programmability and purposefulness are also typical of such communicative processes. In any way direct study of communicative processes is impossible, as we can judge about them only by their products (utterances, texts).

5. Communicative text.

The first four categories of PCA determine the form and content of a text of this or that sublanguage (a special text). The plane of content of special texts is presented by a topical repertory that covers a limited subject field. As a rule, the notion of the subject field is considered in the context of scientific theory. Scientific theory is a form of organization of scientific knowledge that reflects the structure, regularity and relations of certain limited area of reality. A corpus of special texts of different science disciplines is the basic form of existence of scientific information. That is why the notion of the subject field can be considered not only in relation to the subject matter of this or that scientific theory, but also to some corpus of texts that fix it. A corpus of texts of a limited subject field is a total product of professionally oriented communicants of certain SPC, in which their knowledge and expertise are accumulated and shared.

Now let’s turn to the plane of expression. Two different texts belonging to the same functional style can have almost identical content. To put it in a different way, the same subject matter can have different forms of expression. The structure and linguistic peculiarities of special texts are determined by functional styles and speech genres that are conventional in SPC. As a matter of fact, scientific functional style is always prototypical. It corresponds to ‘professional consciousness’ and conceptual system of a certain scientific field. Linguistic means denoting special concepts (i.e. terms) reach highest concentration in special texts of scientific functional style. On the other hand, other functional styles with their corresponding speech genres can be used more often in some sublanguages (for ex., publicistic style in political sublanguage). Thus, scientific functional style is not always predominant and every SPC has its own unique genre-stylistic characteristic.

Summing it up, anthropocentric approach to sublanguage studies its functioning in communication, from the point of view of “human factor”. We can get an adequate and comprehensive idea of what sublanguage is only if we take it in the context of communicative act, to be more exact, professional communicative act. PCA is characterized by the following parameters: professionally oriented communicants, circumstances of professional communication, system of communicative intentions of professionally oriented communicants, communicative processes of professional communication, special communicative text, which form and content are determined by the sphere of professional communication, in which this communicative act takes place. From the textocentric point of view sublanguage is a system of expressive means that is fixed in the corpus of special texts of a limited subject field. Each sublanguage has its own set of typical functional styles and genres. Genre-stylistic norms observed in the most typical special texts of a certain sublanguage can give us more or less clear-cut idea of its borders.

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